Molecular epidemiology denotes the use of molecular biological data as the basis of epidemiological investigation (see Chapter 5: Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections). A disease or condition is not a panzootic merely because it is widespread or kills a large number of animals; it must also be infectious. In 1709, the disease again entered Europe through Venetian trade with the east and by 1714 had spread as far west as Britain. The disease did not just go away either but seemed to persist over the next few years, reducing cattle numbers in most places by an average of at least 60 per cent (although others fared much worse and some better). An avian outbreak associated with panzootic equine influenza in 1872: An early example of highly pathogenic avian influenza? Illustrated with maps; in York Board of Health of the City of New York (ed. Influenza-like disease was described convincingly in historical documents as early as AD 876 as it spread across Europe. The first began in 1926 and spread to most countries before it eventually subsided in the late 1950s as the result of widespread vaccination. Although we are unable to definitively say that these historical outbreaks of disease were influenza, given the virological era did not begin until the 1930s, these descriptions were of a disease that fits well with the current clinical presentation of influenza and typical affected populations. Equine influenza: a review of an unpredictable virus. Influenza A viruses (not to be confused with influenza B or influenza C viruses, which also infect humans and a limited number of other mammals) have an amazing breadth of species that are susceptible, spanning many species of birds and mammals – influenza is rightfully dubbed a promiscuous virus. Please cite this paper as: Morens and Taubenberger (2010) An avian outbreak associated with panzootic equine influenza in 1872: an early example of highly pathogenic avian influenza? In these “high diversity” populations no new alleles appeared to have been introduced, and no genotypes were shared between different infected populations. example of an emerging disease panzootic was the introduction of rinderpest in African domestic cattle in 1889 (5). Monoclonal antibody analyses and nucleic acid hybridization showed that it was a new virus distinct from canine distemper and it is now named phocid distemper virus. Roger W. Blowey BSc BVSC FRCVS FRAgS, A. David Weaver BSc DR MED VET PHD FRCVS, in Color Atlas of Diseases and Disorders of Cattle (Third Edition), 2011. virgin-soil epizootics (12.9), here in Nigeria, fulminate rapidly and frequently escalate into panzootics, whereas enzootic rinderpest spreads slowly, even inapparently, for months in immature and young adult stock free of maternally-derived antibodies. Following the 1920 outbreak in Europe, the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) was set up in Paris to deal with matters concerning animal health in relation to international trade. The affected cattle are now obviously sick, drink excessively, and pass soft feces. In contrast, enzootic rinderpest is difficult to diagnose clinically. Figure 1. The amount of differentiation among isolates at neutral genetic markers and biologic (morphologic and proteomic) characters was greatest for morphologic traits, suggesting that these characters are under selection, and that this is possibly related to local environmental conditions (Fisher et al., 2009). Rare disease, a disease that affects very few people. Organic disease; Progressive disease, a disease that gets worse over time. Of the animal viruses, rinderpest is the most important economically. The equivalent in human populations is called a pandemic.. A panzootic can start when three conditions have been met: the emergence of a disease new to the population. Pandemic (panzootic) disease refers to a large-scale epidemic involving spread of disease across continents or even worldwide, such as that recently associated with H1N1 influenza virus and, previously, with canine parvovirus, amongst many other examples. The 1872 avian epizootic was universally attributed at the time to equine influenza, a disease then of unknown etiology but widely believed to be caused by the same transmissible respiratory agent that caused human influenza. This DNA selectivity is restricted to mature NCp7, compared to its precursors NCp15 and NCp9. The residues 38 and 41 critical for dsRNA binding are shown as blue spheres, demonstrating their location within the central tunnel, and the residues critical to CPSF (cleavage and polyadenylation-specific factor) binding are colored red. Currently, it is not known whether the genome of Bd harbors the genes for mating and meiosis, although such genes have been found in the related Zygomycete lineage Phycomyces blakesleeanus (Idnurm et al., 2008). In 1988, a distinct but closely related virus, phocine distemper virus (PDV), was isolated from seals found dying in large numbers along the beaches of Northern Europe and which showed clinical signs similar to distemper in dogs. The emergence of mucosal erosions 2–5 days later is the first sign suggestive of rinderpest: raised pinheads of necrotic epithelium reminiscent of oatmeal coat all visible mucous membranes, for example tongue and lips (12.12). Dotted lines connect concurrent interspecies influenza virus disease outbreaks. This 1918 influenza virus lives on as H1N1 influenza virus in pigs and humans, continuing to have dramatic impacts on us today not only as seasonal influenza but eloquently illustrated in the case of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus. Influenza transmission between humans and animals are not just a simple linear link; it is a web with transmission of influenza viruses between different animal species. Recent The CSPF-binding sites colored in red are surface-exposed. From the Newenham Chronicle and quoted in ‘A Cattle Panzootic in Early Fourteenth Century Europe’. Real time (quantitative) PCR assays and nucleotide sequence data are increasingly used for such studies, as they facilitate rapid detection of viruses and direct genetic comparison of individual virus strains, respectively, as is done in tracking the introduction and relative prevalence of different viral genotypes in animal populations. A decrease in pH is thought to promote RNA binding and reversal of the disassembly process. Vet Microbiol. These data suggest that, if Bd is able to generate functional diversity from a genetically depauperate genetic background via recombination, and thus increase its rate of adaptation to new environments, then the pathogen likely has the capacity to adapt to new climates and/or host species. Bd is now known to be widespread in all continents except Antarctica (where amphibian hosts do not occur). Seroepidemiology is extremely useful in veterinary disease control activities and in veterinary research. The economic and social consequences which followed in the wake of these plagues led to the establishment of the first veterinary schools – the first at Lyon, France, in 1762. Anthropogenic trade and development have broken down dispersal barriers, facilitating the spread of diseases that threaten Earth’s biodiversity. Period of contagiousness (infectious period) refers to the time during which an infected animal sheds virus. B. dendrobatidis is associated with ongoing declines in 197 as-sessed species. (Eds. So, in addition to a wide range of land mammals, canine distemper virus can also infect aquatic carnivores. The effects of chytridiomycosis have been greatest Report on the origin and progress of the epizootic among horses in 1872, with a table of mortality in New York. 1873;1:88–109. However, the infection status of bats over an extensive geographic area of the … Conclusions: Introduction of human influenza into pig populations has played a role in the creation of reassortant swine and human influenza viruses in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. The atomic models of two adjacent subunits of the coat protein from the lower and upper layer of the three determined structures are displayed. Additionally, in 2005, MacDougall and colleagues discovered an increased number of outbreak-related cases on the mainland of British Columbia and related C. gattii VGII genotypes in the USA, including one later recognized as a VGIIc/novel isolate. The epizootic was eventually shown to have been caused by a virus, at first thought to be canine distemper. The size of the peak required to categorize a disease as an epidemic or outbreak is arbitrary and is influenced by the background infection rate, the morbidity rate, and the anxiety that the disease arouses because of its clinical severity, economic impact, and zoonotic potential. spread of diseases that threaten Earth’s biodiversity. Epidemic (epizootic) disease refers to peaks in disease incidence that exceed the endemic baseline or expected incidence of disease. Steppe cattle of Central Asia are thought to be the original source of rinderpest and ‘steepe murrain’ was the old English name for the disease. (a) The electron cryo-microscopy structure (PDB code 2OM3) might represent the stable state of the helical TMV because of its high secondary structure order: the intrasubunit carboxylate cluster (Glu97, Glu106, and possibly Asp109) acts as a metastable switch—here in the spring-loaded off position. In addition to measles virus (MV), the type virus of the genus, they include important animal pathogens: rinderpest virus (RPV), which infects many species of large ruminant; peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), a similar disease of small ruminants; canine distemper virus (CDV), found mainly in carnivores; phocid distemper virus (PDV), in seals; and the cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV), which is found in whales, dolphins, and porpoises. These findings have two interpretations: either Bd has the potential for sex that is largely unrealized due to population bottlenecks causing the loss of complementary mating types or that LOH can occur at variable rates in different populations, generating a spurious “signal” of genetic recombination. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. This period varies depending on the disease concerned. The appetite is impaired and constipation develops. In 2–3 days the fever regresses and diarrhea starts. These transmission events are not purely historical. 5. The report of Upton and colleagues (2007) illustrated the first confirmed case of the Vancouver Island outbreak VGIIa/major in the USA (2006) from a patient in Puget Sound, Washington. Pathogens. (a) NS1 tubular structure (diameter, ∼ 65 Å) as viewed down its long axis, showing the ∼ 20-Å-wide tunnel. There is marked antigenic difference in the influenza virus epitopes that protective antibody develops against between these animal influenza viruses and influenza viruses currently circulating in the human population. Cats develop fatal systemic influenza infection from eating dead birds infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus. In 1889 a catastrophic outbreak of rinderpest occurred in Africa and was caused by the importation of infected cattle from India to feed Italian soldiers engaged in a military campaign in Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Reproduced from Landolt, G.A., Hugh, G.G., Townsend, D., Lunn, P., 2006. Timeline of influenza or influenza-like disease outbreaks in humans and different animal species. However, many critical questions remain to be addressed in the future to understand the evolutionary dynamics of this unprecedented C. gattii emergence in the region of the world, including expanded environmental sampling, further phenotypic characterizations of associations with host animals and plants, and genome sequencing of more representative C. gattii mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. The risk of infection and/or disease in an animal or animal population is determined by characteristics of the virus (eg, genetic variation from evolution), the host and host population (eg, passive, innate, and acquired resistance; see Chapter 4: Antiviral Immunity and Virus Vaccines), and behavioral, environmental, and ecological factors that affect virus transmission from one host to another. van Wijhe M, Ingholt MM, Andreasen V, Simonsen L. Am J Epidemiol. In these cases, there has been direct transmission of a swine influenza virus to humans, which has occurred at a number of agricultural fairs. 6 Newspapers generally referred to the epizootic as “the chicken disease”, but many different names, some of them fanciful or humorous, were used in different parts of the country, including chicken epidemic [sic], chicken epihippic [sic; epihippic … An early example of an emerging disease panzootic was the introduction of rinderpest in African domestic cattle in 1889 (5). Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Epub 2014 Feb 16. Given osteoporosis’s link with an increased risk of fractures and the devastating impact broken bones can have on the elderly, this … Localized disease, a disease affecting one body part or area. (c) 1EI7 (PDB code) structure of the disk aggregate: the lower-radius regions of the protein subunits in the disk structure are farther apart from each other compared with their arrangement in the helical forms of the virus. Objective: The illustrations are from Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Nigeria. This virus has since been associated with mass die-offs among whales, porpoises, and dolphins (order Cetacea) and a fatal epizootic in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) from the northwestern Atlantic Ocean in the 1980s. For example cancer is responsible for a large number of deaths but is not considered a panzootic because the disease is, generally speaking, not infectious. Anthropogenic trade and development have broken down dispersal barriers, facilitating the spread of diseases that threaten Earth's biodiversity. More recently, epizootics and panzootics of wildlife have been increasingly reported in terrestrial (1) and marine (6) habitats and are probably underreported (1,4,7-9). (b) A surface representation of the tubular structure (diameter, ∼ 65 Å) viewed across its long axis. This can lead to viral changes that go undetected as the virus moves within and between species. See this image and copyright information in PMC. Despite the apparent rapid spread of Bd and the high degree of genetic similarity between isolates, data is accumulating showing that genotypes differ significantly in their virulence. There have also been cases of variant H3N2 swine influenza virus in people. These efforts have and will continue to shed light onto several key features of this outbreak, while other contributing factors remain elusive. A number of other large wild ruminant species were also highly susceptible to the virus and died in large numbers during this so-called ‘Great African Pandemic’. Epidemiologic study is also effective in clarifying the role of viruses in the etiology of diseases, in understanding the interaction of viruses with environmental determinants of disease, in determining factors affecting host susceptibility, in unraveling modes of transmission, and in large-scale testing of vaccines and drugs. The conformational change in the lower-radius region ultimately leads to RNA dissociation. We present a global, quantitative assessment of the amphibian chytridiomycosis panzootic, one of the most impactful examples of disease spread, and demonstrate its role in the decline of at least 501 amphibian species over the last half 20 century, including 90 presumed extinctions. However, a wide range of domestic and wild bird species are susceptible to PMV including chickens, turkeys, pigeons, ducks, geese, and pheasants. It is of ancient Asiatic origin but in more recent times devastating plagues of rinderpest swept across Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Isolated cases of rinderpest have occurred in Brazil (1920) and Australia (1924), again in association with importation of live infected cattle. Careers. A disease of small ruminants, which was almost certainly caused by peste des petits ruminants virus, was first described in Senegal in 1871. They are also widely traded and are often highly invasive when introduced by accident or purpose into new environments (Fisher and Garner, 2007). By detecting antibodies to selected viruses in various age groups of the population, it is possible to determine how effectively viruses have spread or how long it has been since the last appearance of a particular virus in the population. They were shown to be genetically distinct from other morbilliviruses, including phocid distemper virus. Because of the expense of collecting and storing sera properly, advantage is often taken of a wide range of sources of representative serum samples, such as abattoirs, culling operations (especially useful for assessment of wildlife populations), as well as disease surveillance and vaccination programs. A Review of Evidence that Equine Influenza Viruses Are Zoonotic. 2016 Jul;5(2):117-24. doi: 10.7774/cevr.2016.5.2.117. In Fenner's Veterinary Virology (Fifth Edition), 2017. Adonirum B. Judson’s map of the equine panzootic as it occurred in Canada…, National Library of Medicine Would you like email updates of new search results? Both harbor (Phoca vitulina) and gray (Halichoerus grypus) seals were affected and the epizootic resulted in the deaths of more than 20 000 seals. 1995 Aug;76 ( Pt 8):2009-14. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-76-8-2009. The ability of fungi to cause severe disease in nonhuman vertebrate species has been dramatically illustrated by global declines in amphibian biodiversity caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). We present a global, quantitative assessment of the amphibian chytridiomycosis panzootic, one of the most impactful examples of disease spread, and demonstrate its role in the decline of at least 501 amphibian species over the past half-century, including 90 presumed extinctions.The It was also known as cattle plague in the past because of the high mortality associated with infections and the speed with which it spreads in naive cattle populations, which made it an easily recognizable disease. Finally, animal models of influenza infection will be briefly introduced. In 1872, influenza-like disease was described in humans, horses, and poultry simultaneously that impaired countless workhorses and was devastating to poultry. It is one of the oldest documented plagues of domestic livestock. Breathing is labored and painful. Incubation period refers to the interval between infection and the onset of clinical signs. The erosions enlarge and coalesce throughout the alimentary tract from the mouth and esophagus (12.14) to the rectum. NCp7, characterized as an RNA/DNA-binding protein, contributes to both the stabilization and structural rearrangements of the viral genome within virions as well as during reverse transcription within infected cells. Although both domains in the full-length NS1 from an H5N1 strain individually participate in dimeric interactions, X-ray structure revealed an unexpected finding that these interactions result in the formation of a chain of NS1 molecules instead of distinct dimeric units (Bornholdt and Prasad, 2008). Salivation is profuse. documented a large cohort of clinical and veterinary cases from the VGIIa/major outbreak genotype in both Washington and Oregon (Byrnes et al., 2009a,b). T. Barrett, in Encyclopedia of Virology (Third Edition), 2008. This virus has been extremely troubling, given the fact that not only is it coming from birds and has proven to be fatal for many human patients, similar to highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus, but also it appears to go undetected in the avian host, not causing the obvious severe disease that highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus does. Studies of historical documents suggest that horses may have had this role centuries ago and there are numerous historical accounts of influenza-like disease that happened concurrently in human and animal species. Subsequently there have been periodic introductions through importation of live infected animals; the last serious outbreak in domestic cattle occurred in Belgium in 1920 and was caused by infected zebu cattle in transit from India to Brazil mixing with local cattle at the docks. In 2004, horses transmitted H3N8 equine influenza virus to dogs, leading to sustained dog-to-dog transmission and development of an endemic canine influenza virus that could be transmitted between dogs. Epub 2016 Jul 29. This pattern of LOH is not consistent with sexual reproduction and segregation, but rather with a model of chromosome-specific variation in mitotic (somatic) recombination, a process that is well documented in other fungi including the diploid pathogenic fungus Candida albicans that exhibits vegetative diploidy (Odds et al., 2007). Prevention and treatment information (HHS). Horses throughout the city suffered from hacking coughs and fatigue t… A similar plague of small ruminants, peste des petits ruminants (PPR), was first scientifically documented in West Africa in the early 1940s and is also known as kata in that region. Systemic disease, a disease affecting the whole body. Guo Y, Wang M, Zheng GS, Li WK, Kawaoka Y, Webster RG. By introducing quantitative measurements of disease trends, epidemiology has come to have a major role in advancing our understanding of the nature of diseases, and in alerting and informing disease control and prevention activities. In infectious HIV-1 virions, the nucleocapsid architecture confined within the cone-shaped capsid contains two copies of the genomic RNA coated by the mature nucleocapsid protein (NCp7). Some authors have reported lesions most typically in the proventriculus, while others consider them to be most prominent in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
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